India is home to more child labourers under the age of 14 than any
other country in the world (Khanna, 1997) and a 2001 census revealed
that over 12 million of these children are child labourers. Given that
the informal sector is rife with invisible child labourers, this figure
is believed to be closer to 44 million and possibly as high as 80-100
million (Rabe, 2006:21).
India is one of the largest natural stone producers accounting for 27% of the world’s production (Rabe, 2006:7). Mining in India was first used long ago by local kingdoms for weaponry and domestic products, then, from the 1800’s by the British Government. It wasn’t until the 1990’s, however, when large public sector companies began exploring India for natural stone resources, that the mining industry became significant and small scale exporting to countries including China and Korea began. Apart from this boom in the mining industry, India’s “economy is growing at one of the fastest rates in the world” (Rabe, 2006:11).
UNICEF estimates that approximately 20% of mine workers are children (Marshalls). Young girls earn less than any other group of employees in the industry (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:32), making them particularly attractive to businesses driven by profit. Overall women make up 10-50% of quarry workers (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:4), and 40% of these women are 5-14 years old (Nayak et el, 6).
All children in the mining industry “are undergoing serious physical, social, sexual, psychological and environmental exploitation and trauma” (HAQCRC, 2005:4). They work long hours in extremely dangerous environments often with no safety equipment, clean water, amenities or prescribed pay, while the toxic materials and hazardous environments render them susceptible to a range of serious health problems and injuries (HAQCRC, 2005:4). Girls, however, suffer the additional torment of “gender-specific forms of abuse from their employers, including rape” (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:32).
Causes
Field work has shown that one of the most common causes of child labour is a lack of education (Rabe, 2006:15). Traditional Indian society supports the subordination of women to men. (Handy et el, 2003:149). “Child labour affects boys and girls differently… Some argue that child labour is becoming increasingly ‘feminised’” due partially to the fact that if an opportunity arises for a family to send a child to school, male children are prioritised above female children (Rabe, 2006:17). This, together with the fact that girls are paid less than boys may help explain the disproportionate number of young girls working in the quarry industry.
Another significant factor which perpetuates society’s acceptance of the way the quarry industry operates is the caste system. “The caste system in India is an intricate hierarchical social scaffold that determines each person’s ‘role’ or function in relation to others… In such a system, society not only ‘approves’ child labour, it demands it” (Rabe, 2006:15). Little action has been taken to enforce child labour laws because it “would disrupt existing social arrangements” (Rabe, 2006:21). In essence social hierarchy lies at the root of the issue.
Protection
India’s Constitution prohibits children under 14 from working in mines (Rabe, 2006:21). In addition child labour legislation prohibits children from working in “hazardous industries” and mining legislation regulates welfare, safety and health issues (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:19).
Despite these protections offered by India’s legal framework, children continue to be exploited by the mining industry. One of the reasons for this is that, while there are a few major public and international companies operating in India, the mining industry is dominated by small, private companies linked to a labyrinth of illegal activity and overwhelmingly operating in the “informal” sector (HAQCRC, 2005:6). Many mine labourers have no formal record or registration of their existence (Kulkarni, 2007:1).
India is one of the largest natural stone producers accounting for 27% of the world’s production (Rabe, 2006:7). Mining in India was first used long ago by local kingdoms for weaponry and domestic products, then, from the 1800’s by the British Government. It wasn’t until the 1990’s, however, when large public sector companies began exploring India for natural stone resources, that the mining industry became significant and small scale exporting to countries including China and Korea began. Apart from this boom in the mining industry, India’s “economy is growing at one of the fastest rates in the world” (Rabe, 2006:11).
UNICEF estimates that approximately 20% of mine workers are children (Marshalls). Young girls earn less than any other group of employees in the industry (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:32), making them particularly attractive to businesses driven by profit. Overall women make up 10-50% of quarry workers (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:4), and 40% of these women are 5-14 years old (Nayak et el, 6).
All children in the mining industry “are undergoing serious physical, social, sexual, psychological and environmental exploitation and trauma” (HAQCRC, 2005:4). They work long hours in extremely dangerous environments often with no safety equipment, clean water, amenities or prescribed pay, while the toxic materials and hazardous environments render them susceptible to a range of serious health problems and injuries (HAQCRC, 2005:4). Girls, however, suffer the additional torment of “gender-specific forms of abuse from their employers, including rape” (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:32).
Causes
Field work has shown that one of the most common causes of child labour is a lack of education (Rabe, 2006:15). Traditional Indian society supports the subordination of women to men. (Handy et el, 2003:149). “Child labour affects boys and girls differently… Some argue that child labour is becoming increasingly ‘feminised’” due partially to the fact that if an opportunity arises for a family to send a child to school, male children are prioritised above female children (Rabe, 2006:17). This, together with the fact that girls are paid less than boys may help explain the disproportionate number of young girls working in the quarry industry.
Another significant factor which perpetuates society’s acceptance of the way the quarry industry operates is the caste system. “The caste system in India is an intricate hierarchical social scaffold that determines each person’s ‘role’ or function in relation to others… In such a system, society not only ‘approves’ child labour, it demands it” (Rabe, 2006:15). Little action has been taken to enforce child labour laws because it “would disrupt existing social arrangements” (Rabe, 2006:21). In essence social hierarchy lies at the root of the issue.
Protection
India’s Constitution prohibits children under 14 from working in mines (Rabe, 2006:21). In addition child labour legislation prohibits children from working in “hazardous industries” and mining legislation regulates welfare, safety and health issues (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006:19).
Despite these protections offered by India’s legal framework, children continue to be exploited by the mining industry. One of the reasons for this is that, while there are a few major public and international companies operating in India, the mining industry is dominated by small, private companies linked to a labyrinth of illegal activity and overwhelmingly operating in the “informal” sector (HAQCRC, 2005:6). Many mine labourers have no formal record or registration of their existence (Kulkarni, 2007:1).
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